[156] The Iraqi Air Force, however, had originally lacked modern equipment and experienced pilots, but after pleas from Iraqi military leaders, Saddam decreased political influence on everyday operations and left the fighting to his combatants. [85] Kuwait in particular felt menaced with Iranian troops only 16 km (9.9 mi) away, and increased its support of Iraq accordingly. Iraqi tanks came under attack by 95 Iranian F-4 Phantom and F-5 Tiger fighter jets, destroying much of the division. This was a "decision" rather than a resolution. [82][136] In response to their failures against the Iranians in Khorramshahr, Saddam ordered the executions of Generals Juwad Shitnah and Salah al-Qadhi and Colonels Masa and al-Jalil. While this can be said, how many of us can truly recount the reasons for war and the outcome of conflict? Leading up to the War "[269][270][138], Iran's attack on the Osirak nuclear reactor in September 1980 was the first attack on a nuclear reactor and one of only six military attacks on nuclear facilities in history. The Iranians launched a controlled withdrawal from the city, street by street. [25]:1, Operation Mersad (مرصاد "ambush") was the last big military operation of the war. [25]:171 On 15 February 1984, the Iranians began launching attacks against the central section of the front, where the Second Iraqi Army Corps was deployed: 250,000 Iraqis faced 250,000 Iranians. "[25]:162–163[110]:263 They were especially inclined to fear Iranian victory after Ayatollah Khomeini declared monarchies to be illegitimate and an un-Islamic form of government. They operated with virtual impunity, as Iraqi pilots had little training in hitting naval targets. [25]:147 Saddam, annoyed, asked if anyone else in the Cabinet agreed with the Health Minister's idea. [82] In all, Iraq launched 520 Scuds and al-Husseins against Iran and Iran fired 177 in return. Iran also began to improve relations with many of the states that opposed it during the war. [85] By 1 October, Baghdad had been subjected to eight air attacks. [129] Operations were often carried out during the night and deception operations, infiltrations, and maneuvers became more common. "[265]:156 Policy consultant and author Joseph Tragert stated, "Iran did not retaliate with chemical weapons, probably because it did not possess any at the time". Iran attacked tankers carrying Iraqi oil from Kuwait, later attacking tankers from any Persian Gulf state supporting Iraq. [citation needed], By 1984, Iran's losses were estimated to be 300,000 soldiers, while Iraq's losses were estimated to be 150,000. They secretly imported some weapons, such as RBS-70 anti-aircraft MANPADS. "Iraq". [217], In addition to helping trigger the Persian Gulf War, the Iran–Iraq War also contributed to Iraq's defeat in the Persian Gulf War. By 1986, Iran also expanded their air defense network heavily to relieve the pressure on the air force. [118], Iraq's strategic reserves had been depleted, and by now it lacked the power to go on any major offensives until nearly the end of the war. [156] Iranian ground air defense still shot down many Iraqi aircraft. Saddam was also concerned over attempts by Iran’s Islamic revolutionary government to incite rebellion among Iraq’s Shiʿi majority. The Iraqis attacked again on 28 January 1985; they were defeated, and the Iranians retaliated on 11 March 1985 with a major offensive directed against the Baghdad-Basra highway (one of the few major offensives conducted in 1985), codenamed Operation Badr (after the Battle of Badr, Muhammad's first military victory in Mecca). The relatively small numbers and the inevitable disputes over actual kill numbers makes it unclear if one gunship had a real technical superiority over the other. [116] Iraqi tanks launched attacks with no infantry support, and many tanks were lost to Iranian anti-tank teams. [185] One quarter of the town's then population of 20,000 was burned and stricken, and 113 were killed immediately, with many more dying and suffering health effects over following decades. [82][page needed], At the same time, Saddam ordered the genocidal al-Anfal Campaign in an attempt to crush the Kurdish resistance, who were now allied with Iran. Each squad was assigned a specific objective. Iraqi sources claimed that since March, Iraq had captured a total of 1,298 tanks, 155 armored infantry fighting vehicles, 512 heavy artillery weapons, 6,196 mortars, 5,550 recoilless rifles and light guns, 8,050 rocket propelled grenades, 60,694 rifles, 322 pistols, 6,156 telecommunications devices, 501 items of heavy engineering equipment, 454 trucks, 1,600 light vehicles and trailers, 16,863 items of chemical defense gear, and 16,863 caskets... After its recent defeats, Iran was virtually defenseless in the south. In March 2003, U.S. forces invaded Iraq vowing to destroy Iraqi weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and end the dictatorial rule of Saddam Hussein. [103][114], After the Iraqi offensive stalled in March 1981, there was little change in the front other than Iran retaking the high ground above Susangerd in May. [85] At the same time, the already extensive personality cult around Saddam reached new heights while the regime tightened its control over the military. By 1986, Iraq had twice as many soldiers as Iran. [159] Iran began to rely on its new Revolutionary Guard's navy, which used Boghammar speedboats fitted with rocket launchers and heavy machine guns. [246], U.S. government support for Iraq was not a secret and was frequently discussed in open sessions of the Senate and House of Representatives. [83]:2, From early 1983–1984, Iran launched a series of four Valfajr (Dawn) Operations (that eventually numbered to 10). [citation needed], In 1982, Reagan removed Iraq from the list of countries "supporting terrorism" and sold weapons such as howitzers to Iraq via Jordan. Initially, they refused to fight alongside the army, which resulted in many defeats, but by 1982, the two groups began carrying out combined operations. [85] 1985 also saw student anti-war demonstrations, which were crushed by government forces.[85]. [82][138][83] Iranian oil and non-oil exports fell by 55%, inflation reached 50% by 1987, and unemployment skyrocketed. The bombings killed 65 children in an elementary school in Borujerd. Iraq’s defenses solidified once its troops were defending their own soil, and the war settled down into a stalemate with a static, entrenched front running just inside and along Iraq’s border. 1,200 Iranian soldiers were killed in the counter-attack. In the north, Iraq also launched an attack into Iraqi Kurdistan, which was blunted by the Iranians. [82] At the same time, Iraq was experiencing crushing debt and shortages of workers, encouraging its leadership to try to end the war quickly. As a result, Iran funded the war by the income from oil exports after cash had run out. [25]:142–143, Richard Murphy, Assistant Secretary of State during the war, testified to Congress in 1984 that the Reagan administration believed a victory for either Iran or Iraq was "neither militarily feasible nor strategically desirable".[25]:178. Dunnigan, A Quick and Dirty Guide to War (1991), Dictionary of Twentieth Century World History, by Jan Palmowski (Oxford, 1997), Clodfelter, Michael, Warfare and Armed Conflict: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1618–1991, Chirot, Daniel: Modern Tyrants : the power and prevalence of evil in our age (1994). Weapons sold to Iraq included 4x4 vehicles, BO-105 helicopters, explosives, and ammunition. [103] Iraq created multiple static defense lines to bleed the Iranians through sheer size. Arab mercenaries and volunteers from Egypt[232] and Jordan formed the Yarmouk Brigade[233] and participated in the war alongside Iraqis. They had been seriously weakened by sanctions and pre-war purges and further damaged by a fresh purge after the impeachment crisis of President Banisadr. [168], Iran also launched several retaliatory air raids on Iraq, while primarily shelling border cities such as Basra. While being a public-relations victory for Iran, the United States increased its reflagging efforts. [110]:252French historian Pierre Razoux argued that this sudden drop in economic industrial potential, in conjunction with the increasing aggression of Iraq, placed Iran in a challenging position that had little leeway other than accepting Iraq's conditions of peace. [202] By April 1988, such casualties were estimated at between 150,000 and 340,000 Iraqis dead, and 450,000 to 730,000 Iranians. At the same time, Western analysts accepted improbable estimates. [85] Combatants came so close to one another that Iranians were able to board Iraqi tanks and throw grenades inside the hulls. [82] Iran also doubled their stocks of artillery, and was self-sufficient in manufacture of ammunition and small arms. [172], Compounding the extensive foreign help to Iraq, Iranian attacks were severely hampered by their shortages of weaponry, particularly heavy weapons as large amounts had been lost during the war. [180] On 20 July 1988, Iran accepted Resolution 598, showing its willingness to accept a ceasefire. On 22 September 1980, Iraq launched a surprise military attack on Iran, thereby igniting a war that would last for eight years, ending only when both countries agreed to accept … [85] Iran retaliated, launching at least 104 missiles against Iraq in 1988 and shelling Basra. This study argues that the Iran-Iraq War is a result of the Persian Gulf struggle and examines the armament activities of the parties concerned, the support they received and to which extend this support played a role in the conduct of the war. [103][page needed] Up to this point, Iraqi strategy was to ride out Iranian attacks. The gap only widened as the war went on. almost 9 years of total/ conventional war (for both sides) Why (immediate cause)? The Iran–Iraq War[c] (Persian: جنگ ایران و عراق‎; Arabic: حرب الخليج الأولى, الحرب الإيرانية العراقية‎) was a protracted armed conflict that began on 22 September 1980 when Iraq invaded neighbouring Iran. [25]:251 The government responded with mass executions of suspected MEK members, a practice that lasted until 1985. North Korea was a major arms supplier to Iran, often acting as a third party in arms deals between Iran and the Communist bloc. Because the Iranian war effort relied on popular mobilization, their military strength actually declined, and Iran was unable to launch any major offensives after Karbala-5. [82] The Iraqi high command had assumed that the marshlands above Basra were natural barriers to attack, and had not reinforced them. They were also active after the failed U.S. attempt to rescue its hostages, Operation Eagle Claw. [82] Iran had captured large quantities of Iraqi equipment (enough to create several tank battalions, Iran once again had 1,000 tanks) and also managed to clandestinely procure spare parts as well. [151] The Iranians attempted to further exploit activities in the north on 30 July 1983, during Operation Dawn-3. Some partisans remained, and fighting continued until 10 November. While the United States directly fought Iran, citing freedom of navigation as a major casus belli, it also indirectly supplied some weapons to Iran as part of a complex and illegal programme that became known as the Iran–Contra affair. [109], Iraq also carried out another "war of the cities" between 12 and 14 March, hitting up to 158 targets in over 30 towns and cities, including Tehran. The most infamous event was the massacre of 148 civilians of the Shia town of Dujail. [66] More than 144,000 Iranian children were orphaned as a consequence of these deaths. The Iranians retreated back to the marshes, though they still held onto them along with Majnoon Island. Iraq also became self-sufficient in chemical weapons and some conventional ones and received much equipment from abroad. [135], After the failure of the 1982 summer offensives, Iran believed that a major effort along the entire breadth of the front would yield victory. [277][278] The Iranians repeated this accomplishment on 24 April 1981, destroying two Mi-25s without incurring losses to themselves. Although Iraq hoped to take advantage of Iran's post-revolutionary chaos and expected a decisive victory in the face of a severely weakened Iran, the Iraqi military only made progress for three months, and by December 1980 the invasion had stalled. The lack of international sympathy disturbed the Iranian leadership, and they came to the conclusion that the United States was on the verge of waging a full-scale war against them, and that Iraq was on the verge of unleashing its entire chemical arsenal upon their cities.[190]. The depleted tank forces were replenished with more Soviet and Chinese tanks, and the Iraqis were reinvigorated in the face of the coming Iranian onslaught. [205] As war with the western powers loomed, Iraq became concerned about the possibility of Iran mending its relations with the west in order to attack Iraq. Meanwhile, Iraqi conventional bombs and missiles continuously hit towns and cities, destroying vital civilian and military infrastructure, and increasing the death toll. [145], The economic loss at the time was believed to exceed $500 billion for each country ($1.2 trillion total). Iran-Iraq War 1980-1988. [85]:38 Of the opposing view was a hardline faction led by the clerics on the Supreme Defence Council, whose leader was the politically powerful speaker of the Majlis, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani. More Iraqi air attacks were carried out in August, resulting in hundreds of additional civilian casualties. [90] The "War of the Cities" resumed and peaked in 1988, when Iraq dropped 40 tons of high explosives on Tehran using modified Scud missiles (dubbed "al-Hussein" missiles) over seven weeks, causing panic among civilians and prompting almost 1 million residents of Tehran to temporarily flee their homes. [168] Saddam ordered the attack in order to test the effects of the newly developed "dusty mustard" gas, which was designed to be even more crippling than traditional mustard gas. The Iran–Iraq War is regarded as being a major trigger for rising sectarianism in the region, as it was viewed by many as a clash between Sunni Muslims (Iraq and other Arab States) and the Shia revolutionaries that had recently taken power in Iran. It is estimated that between 50,000 and 100,000 Kurds were killed by Iraqi forces during the series of campaigns code-named Anfāl (Arabic: “Spoils”) that took place in 1988 (see Kurd). However, they were quickly bogged down into a stalemate against 200,000 Iranian infantrymen, reinforced by amphibious divisions. The discourses on martyrdom formulated in the Iranian Shia Islamic context led to the tactics of "human wave attacks" and thus had a lasting impact on the dynamics of the war.[76]. Iran later reverse-engineered and produced those weapons themselves. [103] Iraq built its military massively, eventually possessing the 4th largest in the world, in order to overwhelm the Iranians through sheer size. [25]:75–76 The importance of winning Shia support was such that welfare services in Shia areas were expanded during a time in which the Iraqi regime was pursuing austerity in all other non-military fields. [25]:147 Saddam returned to the room and continued with his meeting. The Basij forces were also equipped with anti-tank weapons. [202] Shortly after the end of the war, it was thought that Iran suffered even more than a million dead. Here are the main events before, during and since the conflict. US President Donald Trump says he ordered the assassination on Friday of Iran's top general, Qasem Soleimani, "to stop a war." In the mid-1980s the military stalemate continued, but in August 1988 Iran’s deteriorating economy and recent Iraqi gains on the battlefield compelled Iran to accept a United Nations-mediated cease-fire that it had previously resisted. [139] Sometimes, the Iraqis would launch "probing attacks" into the Iranian lines to provoke them into launching their attacks sooner. Attacks on ships of noncombatant nations in the Persian Gulf sharply increased thereafter, with both nations attacking oil tankers and merchant ships of neutral nations in an effort to deprive their opponent of trade. [267] A medical analysis of the effects of Iraqi mustard gas is described in a U.S. military textbook and contrasted effects of World War I gas. [124], Despite the successful H-3 airbase attack (in addition to other air attacks), the Iranian Air Force was forced to cancel its successful 180-day air offensive. [177][178] While Iranian forces crossed the border and captured the eastern section of Basra Governorate, the operation ended in a stalemate. In battle, they would surge forward to accomplish their missions, and thus gave the impression of a human wave pouring against enemy lines.[106]. [85] The al-Anfal Campaign was intended to "pacify" Iraqi Kurdistan permanently. The war also helped to create a forerunner for the Coalition of the Gulf War, when the Gulf Arab states banded together early in the war to form the Gulf Cooperation Council to help Iraq fight Iran. [85] Iraq had mobilised 21 divisions for the invasion, while Iran countered with only 13 regular army divisions and one brigade. [116] Iranian military advisors organised the Kurds into raiding parties of 12 guerrillas, which would attack Iraqi command posts, troop formations, infrastructure (including roads and supply lines), and government buildings. Iraqi commandos used amphibious craft to block the Iranian rear,[82] then used hundreds of tanks with massed conventional and chemical artillery barrages to recapture the island after 8 hours of combat. "[110]:260 Syria's closure of the Kirkuk–Baniyas pipeline left Iraq with the pipeline to Turkey as the only means of exporting oil, along with transporting oil by tanker truck to the port of Aqaba in Jordan. The number of casualties was enormous but equally uncertain. [85] One faction, comprising Prime Minister Mir-Hossein Mousavi, Foreign Minister Ali Akbar Velayati, President Ali Khamenei, Army Chief of Staff General Ali Sayad Shirazi as well as Major General Qasem-Ali Zahirnejad, wanted to accept the ceasefire, as most of Iranian soil had been recaptured. [82][180] Iran estimated that 4,500 MEK were killed, while 400 Iranian soldiers died. [82], The same day as Iraq's attack on al-Faw peninsula, the United States Navy launched Operation Praying Mantis in retaliation against Iran for damaging a warship with a mine. [85][109], On 22 September, a prolonged battle began in the city of Khorramshahr, eventually leaving 7,000 dead on each side. Civilians were instructed to clear marshlands to prevent Iranian amphibious infiltrations and to help build fixed defenses. [citation needed], The government tried to integrate the Shias into the war effort by recruiting many as part of the Ba'ath Party. Resolution 598 became effective on 8 August 1988, ending all combat operations between the two countries. Iran carried out several airstrikes and missile attacks against Mujahedeen targets inside of Iraq (the largest taking place in 2001, when Iran fired 56 Scud missiles at Mujahedeen targets). Cordesman gives the figure as 1,500+ operational tanks in March 1988 (1,298 were captured by the Iraqis by July 1988, 200 were still in the hands of the Iranians, and an unknown number were destroyed), with an unknown number in workshops. [145], On 16 July, Iran tried again further north and managed to push the Iraqis back. They then launched a pincer attack using mechanized infantry and heavy artillery. Iraq's debt to Paris Club amounted to $21 billion, 85% of which had originated from the combined inputs of Japan, the USSR, France, Germany, the United States, Italy and the United Kingdom. The UN peacekeepers withdrew from the border shortly afterward. The Iraqis launched a counter-attack using their 12th Armoured division to break the encirclement and rescue the surrounded divisions. [211] In all, Iraq received $35 billion in loans from the West and between $30 and $40 billion from the Persian Gulf states during the 1980s.[238]. [112][dubious – discuss], The Iranian regular military, police forces, volunteer Basij, and Revolutionary Guards all conducted their operations separately; thus, the Iraqi invading forces did not face coordinated resistance. By 1988, Iraq would have 1 million soldiers, giving it the fourth largest army in the world. Some transactions may have involved people, shipping, and manufacturing in as many as 10 countries. Iraq, in violation of the UN ceasefire, refused to withdraw its troops from 7,800 square kilometres (3,000 sq mi) of disputed territory at the border area unless the Iranians accepted Iraq's full sovereignty over the Shatt al-Arab waterway. [citation needed], For the most part, Iraq remained on the defensive for the next five years, unable and unwilling to launch any major offensives, while Iran launched more than 70 offensives. At the same time as Operation Karbala 5, Iran also launched Operation Karbala-6 against the Iraqis in Qasr-e Shirin in central Iran to prevent the Iraqis from rapidly transferring units down to defend against the Karbala-5 attack. [82][page needed] The Iranians rejected the offer. Iraq’s troops captured the city of Khorramshahr but failed to take the important oil-refining centre of Ābādān, and by December 1980 the Iraqi offensive had bogged down about 50–75 miles (80–120 km) inside Iran after meeting unexpectedly strong Iranian resistance. One of the most controversial foreign policy decisions of the last century occurred in 2003 in the wake of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States. [85] Iraq's aim in attacking Iranian shipping was to provoke the Iranians to retaliate with extreme measures, such as closing the Strait of Hormuz to all maritime traffic, thereby bringing American intervention; the United States had threatened several times to intervene if the Strait of Hormuz were closed. [103] Iraq had concentrated three armoured divisions, the 3rd, 9th, and 10th, as a counter-attack force to attack any penetrations. [156] The U.S. Navy was now becoming more involved in the fight in the Persian Gulf, launching Operations Earnest Will and Prime Chance against the Iranians. [129] The final two Tawakal ala Allah operations took place near al-Amarah and Khaneqan. [180], with the threat of a new and even more powerful invasion, Commander-in-Chief Rafsanjani ordered the Iranians to retreat from Haj Omran, Kurdistan on 14 July. [55][64] Combatants include 79,664 members of the Revolutionary Guard Corps and additional 35,170 soldiers from regular military. Within 48 hours, all of the Iranian forces had been killed or cleared from the al-Faw Peninsula. [90] Prisoners taken by both countries began to be released in 1990, though some were not released until more than 10 years after the end of the conflict. When informed of this plot, Saddam ordered the execution of dozens of his army's officers, and in a sign of reconciliation, expelled from Iraq Ruhollah Khomeini, an exiled leader of clerical opposition to the Shah.